CARBON CAPTURE TECHONOLOGY.

WHAT IS CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY:

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is a way of reducing carbon emissions, which could be key to helping to tackle global warming. It’s a three-step process, involving: capturing the carbon dioxide produced by power generation or industrial activity, such as steel or cement making; transporting it; and then storing it deep underground. Here we look at the potential benefits of CCS and how it works.

CCS: CCS involves the capture of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from industrial processes, such as steel and cement production, or from the burning of fossil fuels in power generation. This carbon is then transported from where it was produced, via ship or in a pipeline, and stored deep underground in geological formations.

HOW DOES CCS ACTUALLY WOKS?
There are three steps to the CCS process:

1.Capturing the carbon dioxide for storage.

The CO2 is separated from other gases produced in industrial processes, such as those at coal and natural-gas-fired power generation plants or steel or cement factories 

2.TRANSPORT:

The CO2 is then compressed and transported via pipelines, road transport or ships to a site for storage.

3.STORAGE:

Finally, the CO2 is injected into rock formations deep underground for permanent storage.

Carbon capture technology and how it works

Technology that captures carbon dioxide from our atmosphere has existed for decades and is now being considered a key method for fighting climate change. So what does this technology look like and how does it work in practice?

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology is a form of carbon sequestration that’s set to play a central role in helping us reach net zero by 2050.

Existing strategies to tackle climate change focus mainly on eliminating the carbon emissions from processes such as power generation or transport; but CCS looks at how carbon dioxide (CO2) can be captured directly from the atmosphere, or at point of emission, and stored safely within the natural environment

How does carbon capture technology work?

CCS takes two basic forms:

1.Biological carbon capture and storage: when the natural environment – such as forests and oceans – sequesters CO2 from the atmosphere.

2.Artificial / Geological carbon capture and storage: when CO2 as an emission is extracted from human-made processes and is stored in vast underground facilities.

Biological CCS happens on a much larger scale than geological CCS, but the technology to stimulate both has traditionally been viewed as expensive and unpractical at scale. This is changing, however, as investment and research into carbon capturing technologies takes off.

EXAMPLES:

Types of carbon capture technology.

1. Carbon sinks:

Natural forms of CCS are called ‘carbon sinks’ and they are vast spaces where the natural habitats capture CO2 from the atmosphere – these include forests, oceans, grasslands and wetlands.

Scientists, as well as environmental and conservation experts, recognise that the preservation and cultivation of carbon sinks could increase the amount of carbon taken from our atmosphere in the shortest space of time.

Grasslands and wetlands in particular have a much quicker turnaround for carbon storage, with coastal wetlands storing more carbon per hectare than other habitats like forests.1

Where woodland is used, experts believe certain types of tree - such as birch or willow – are optimal for land-based carbon capture as they absorb more CO2 comparatively than other tree species.

2. Saline aquifers

Deep saline aquifers are underground geological formations; vast expanses of porous, sedimentary rock, which are filled with salt water. CO2 can be injected into these and stored permanently – in fact, saline aquifers have the largest identified storage potential among all other forms of engineered CCS.

The ‘Endurance’ aquifer, located in the North Sea off the coast of the UK, is one such formation, which sits approximately 1 mile (1.6km) below the sea bed. Roughly the size of Manhattan Island and the height of The Shard or the Empire State Building, its porous composition allows for carbon dioxide to be injected into it and stored safely for potentially thousands of years.

In the US, multiple large-scale saline aquifers are now being used for CCS purposes, such as the Citonelle Project Alabama. During its three-year trial period, it was successful in storing more than 150,000 tonnes of CO2 per year, which was captured from a nearby pilot facility.

3. Giant air filters

Carbon capture technologies are still being developed globally, with individual countries creating strategies that respond to their own net zero goals. For example, in China companies have developed experimental commercial air filters – huge towers that clean air of pollutants on a huge scale. These giant air towers purify air by drawing it into glass rooms, which are heated using solar power creating a greenhouse effect. This hot air up is pushed up the tower through a series of filters, before being released back into the atmosphere as clean air.

One such giant air-purifier tower in Xian has reportedly been cleaning more than 353 million cubic feet of air each day, dramatically improving local air quality. Manufacturers believe they are close to developing even larger towers, where just one could clean enough air on a daily basis for a small city.

HOW WE CAN CAPTURE CARBON ?

Direct Air Capture (DAC) is a technology that removes carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere.

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Using high-powered fans, air is drawn into a processing facility where the CO₂ is separated through a series of chemical reactions. Then the CO₂ is either permanently stored in underground reservoirs through secure geologic sequestration, or is used to make new products such as building materials and low-carbon fuels.

WHY ITS IMPORTANT:

According to the sixth Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “In addition to deep, rapid, and sustained emission reductions, carbon dioxide removal (CDR) can fulfill three different complementary roles globally or at country level: lowering net CO₂ or net GHG emissions in the near term; counterbalancing ‘hard-to-abate’ residual emissions (e.g., emissions from agriculture, aviation, shipping, industrial processes) in order to help reach net zero CO₂ or net zero GHG emissions in the mid-term; and achieving net negative CO₂ or GHG emissions in the long term if deployed at levels exceeding annual residual emissions.”²

NET GLOBAL CARBONDIOXIDE EMISSION:

HOW  DAC WORKS:

1PointFive is developing Carbon Engineering’s Direct Air Capture technology. This technology works by drawing air into a facility using a series of large fans. The air comes in contact with a chemical solution that binds to the CO₂ molecules. The CO₂-rich solution is then processed through a series of reactions that separate, purify and compress the CO₂. The resulting CO₂ can then be permanently stored or used as a feedstock for other products.

BENEFITS OF LIQUID  SORBENT TECHNOLOGY:

Carbon Engineering’s DAC technology uses a liquid sorbent rather than a solid adsorbent. This technology distinction offers two significant benefits:

1. Liquid sorbent enables a continuous-loop process (vs. a batch process utilized in solid sorbent technologies). This continuous-loop process means a 1PointFive DAC facility is expected to run 24/7, a key enabler for megaton scale removal.

2.The liquid sorbent process inherently produces a high-purity CO₂ stream (95%+ CO₂). The solid adsorbent technology requires a combined temperature-vacuum swing adsorption (TVSA) process to extract the CO₂ in concentrated form. Achieving high levels of purity via TVSA requires significant energy and high pressures that add significant cost

TOP FIVE INDUSTRIES THAT CONTRIBUTING TO CARBON EMISSION

Every year, human activities generate over fifty billion tons of emissions. While carbon dioxide isn’t the only GHG, it is the most abundant, accounting for 74% of all GHG emissions. Burning fossil fuels generates most CO2 emissions, which persists in the atmosphere for up to 1000 years

Carbon dioxide emissions, primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels, have risen dramatically since the start of the industrial revolution. Most of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions come from a relatively small number of countries. China, the United States, and the nations that make up the European Union are the three largest emitters on an absolute basis. Per capita greenhouse gas emissions are highest in the United States and Russia.

1. Emission by Industry
2. Transport Emission
3. Emission From Farming and Food
4. Electricity Generation and Heat Production
5. Commercial and Residential Emission

                                         1.Emissions by Industry

Introduction

Last year, carbon emissions from the energy sector reached a record high, increasing 6% from 2020. After a global decline in emissions due to the covid-19 pandemic, they surged to 36.3 gigatons. Electricity and heat production created the most emissions and accounted for 46% of the global increase in emissions.

Coal emissions have grown to 15.3 gt, with oil generating 10.7 gt and natural gas creating 7.5 gt. Over 40% of 2021 carbon emission increase was from coal. 

Impact of Carbon Industrial Emission in Pakistan?

Pakistan predominately relies on fossil fuel consumption (almost 84%) to meet its energy demand, which has led to a significant rise in CO2 emissions (CO2Es) and poses an enormous threat to industrial growth. To reduce CO2Es and develop the economy simultaneously, it is necessary to study how to attain a strong decoupling association between impacting factors. Meantime, Pakistan is a transitional economy with significant industrial gaps. Against such backgrounds, this study provides detailed information regarding carbon intensity, energy structure, energy intensity, energy efficiency, worker's effect, economic activity, and industrial scale, which may be essential and beneficial for policymakers. Most existing studies ignored such factors' variations in Pakistan. To fill this gap, focusing on the industrial sector from 1990 onwards, this analysis aims to identify the major driving factors, mainly our focusing the productive sector. This is important because this sector has reached the country's target.

When were Carbon Industrial emission created?

Between 1850 and 1960, the world generally experienced a constant growth of emissions, due largely to industrialization and population growth, particularly in the United States. This development only saw some interruptions by historic events, like the Great Depression in the 1930s and the end of World War II in 1945. By the 1950s, however, China and Russia started seeing their emissions climb as their economies grew.

2.Transport Emission:

Introduction

Burning fossil fuels for fuel and generating electricity results in the transport sector producing 16.2% of the world's emissions. Scientists estimate that if the road transport sector switched to entirely electric energy sources, global emissions could fall by almost 12 per cent. 

Over 60% of road transport emissions are from personal vehicles, with the other 40% from freight vehicles. In the UK, a quarter of emissions come from transport - amounting to 1.8 tons of CO2 per person per year. 

Impact of Transport Emission in Pakistan?

The transport infrastructure plays an imperative role in a country's progress. At the same time, it causes environmental degradation due to extensive use of fossil fuels. The transport system of Pakistan is largely dependent on nonrenewable energy sources (oil, coal, and gas), which are hazardous to environmental quality. This research uses an autoregressive distributive lag model (ARDL) to examine the impact of oil prices, energy intensity of road transport, economic growth, and population density on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of Pakistan's transport sector during the 1971-2014 period. The ARDL bounding test examines the cointegration and long-run relationships among the variables, and the directions of causal relationships are found through the Granger causality vector error correction model (VECM). The long-run results indicate that increases in oil prices and economic growth help to reduce the transport sector's CO2 emissions, while rising energy intensity, population concentration, and road infrastructure increase them, with population playing a dominant role. The findings of this study can help authorities in Pakistan to develop suitable energy policies for the transport sector. Among other recommendations, the study recommends investment in renewable energy projects and energy-efficient transport systems (e.g., light train, rapid transport system, and electric busses) and environmental taxes (subsidies) on the vehicles that use fossil fuels (renewable energy).

When were Transport Emission created?

Timeline of Major Accomplishments in Transportation, Air Pollution, and Climate Change. Air pollution and cars were first linked in the early 1950's by a California researcher who determined that pollutants from traffic was to blame for the smoggy skies over Los Angeles.

3.Emission from Farming and Food

Introduction

A quarter of all GHG emissions are from food production, and agriculture is the biggest contributor of methane and nitrous oxide. The majority of emissions are from rearing livestock (31%), followed by growing crops (27%), land use (24%) and the supply chain (18%).

Alarmingly, six% of global GHG emissions are from food waste. A quarter of all food produced every year is discarded, highlighting a major area where improvements are needed. In contrast, the entire aviation industry accounts for 2% of global GHG emissions.

Impact of Agricultural Emission in Pakistan?

One of Pakistan's key economic sectors, agriculture contributes 18.9% of the country's GDP in 2021 (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics). According to results of Sui and Lv (2021) the increase in agriculture inputs in crop production, leading to agricultural CO2 emissions increasing with a growth rate of 36.2%.

When were Agricultural Emission created?

In 2018, global emissions due to agriculture (within the farm gate and including related land use/land use change) were 9.3 billion tons of CO2 equivalent (CO2eq). → Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from crop and livestock activities contributed 5.3 billion tone’s CO2eq in 2018, a 14 percent growth since 2000. → Livestock production processes such as enteric fermentation and manure deposition on pastures dominated farm-gate emissions, together generating 3 billion tone’s CO2eq in 2018.

4.Electricity Generation and Heat Production:

Introduction

The first sector on our list is electricity generation and heat production which account for approximately 28% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions.

Electricity generation occurs mainly in thermal power plants. Thermal power plants produce electricity by burning coal and/or its derivatives.

Unfortunately, in this process, a lot of greenhouse gases are produced

Impact of Electricity and Heat Production Emission in Pakistan?

Electricity consumption plays an imperative role in the rising economy and carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) emissions in Pakistan. This study employs the decomposition and decoupling methods in driving factors of CO2es from electricity generation for the years 1990–2019. The study investigates the key driving factors in three ways: first, the study measures the CO2eq emission from the electricity sector using the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) between population, activity, electricity intensity, total electricity, electricity generation structure, energy efficiency, and fuel emission factor effect. Second, Tapio's decoupling index method is employed to analyze the association between electricity CO2eq emission and economic growth over the study period. Third, decoupling indexes of each factor are analyzed for future policies and sustainable growth

When were Electricity and Heat Production Emission created?

In 1820, in arguably the most pivotal contribution to modern power systems, Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry invented a primitive electric motor, and in 1831, documented that an electric current can be produced in a wire moving near a magnet—demonstrating the principle

In 2021, emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) by the U.S. electric power sector were 1,552 million metric tons (MMmt), or about 32% of total U.S. energy-related CO2 emissions of 4,904 (MMmt). Includes CO2 emissions from the combustion of waste materials made from fossil fuels and by some types of geothermal power plants.

5. Commercial and Residential Emission

Introduction

The penultimate sector on our list is the commercial and residential sector, which comprises households and businesses. Together, they account for approximately 11% of greenhouse gas emission in the US.

As was the case with the industrial sector, the commercial and residential sector is responsible for direct as well as indirect emissions.

If we were to include the indirect emissions as well, the commercial and residential sector tops the list, being responsible for 32% of GHG emissions in the U.S.

Residential activities such as cooking, heating, using an air-conditioner and poor treatment of waste contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.

Commercial activities are similar to residential activities, except each commercial unit carries them out on a larger scale, but commercial units are lesser in number, offsetting the operations against the residential sector

Impact of Commercial and residential Emission in Pakistan?

The quality of the environment is a foundation for any country’s long-term development. The country’s economy is improving with the passage of time, but environmental issues in Pakistan must be addressed. The standard of living and the quality of life still need a lot of improvement. Water pollution, soil erosion, land degradation, water scarcity, global warming, air pollution, and natural disasters are just a few of the climatic and Environment concern that Pakistan faces. To improve the quality of life in Pakistan, policies, and activities must ensure that the developments taking place do not jeopardize the country’s resources and environment.

When were Commercial and residential Emission started?

The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (blue line) has increased along with human emissions (gray line) since the start of the Industrial Revolution in 1750.

 

 3D Printer & Its Types with their Working Principles

 3D Printers & Its Working

                     A 3D printer is a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) device that creates three-dimensional objects. Like a traditional printer, a 3D printer receives digital data from a computer as input. However, instead of printing the output on paper, a 3D printer builds a three-dimensional model out of a custom material.

3D printers use a process called additive manufacturing to form (or "print") physical objects layer by layer until the model is complete. This is different than subtractive manufacturing, in which a machine reshapes or removes material from an existing mold. Since 3D printers create models from scratch, they are more efficient and produce less waste than subtractive manufacturing devices.

- 3D Printers Types

1) Stereolithography (SLA) Technology

                                                                SLA is a fast prototyping process. Those who use this technology are serious about accuracy and precision. It can produce objects from 3D CAD data (computer-generated) files in just a few hours. This is a 3D printing process that’s popular for its fine details and exactness. Machines that use this technology produce unique models, patterns, prototypes, and various production parts. They do this by converting liquid photopolymers (a special type of plastic) into solid 3D objects, one layer at a time. The plastic is first heated to turn it into a semi-liquid form, and then it hardens on contact. The printer constructs each of these layers using an ultra violet laser, directed by X and Y scanning mirrors. Just before each print cycle, a re coater blade moves across the surface to ensure each thin layer of resin spreads evenly across the object. The print cycle continues in this way, building 3D objects from the bottom up.

Once completed, someone takes the 3D object from the printer and detaches it carefully from the platform. The 3D part will usually have a chemical bath to remove any excess resin. It’s also common practice to post-cure the object in an ultra violet oven. What this does is render the finished item stronger and more stable. Depending on the part, it may then go through a hand sanding process and have some professional painting done. SLA printing has become a favored economical choice for a wide variety of industries. Some of these include automotive, medical, aerospace, entertainment, and 

also to create various consumer products.

2) Digital Light Processing (DLP) Technology

                                                                   DLP is the oldest of the 3D printing technologies, created by a man called Larry Hornbeck back in 1987. It’s similar to SLA (see above), given that it also works with photopolymers. The liquid plastic resin used by the printer goes into a translucent resin container. There is, however, one major difference between the two, which is the source of light. While SLA uses ultra violet light, DLP uses a more traditional light source, usually arc lamps. This process results in pretty impressive printing speeds. When there’s plenty of light, the resin is quick to harden (we’re talking seconds). Compared to SLA 3D printing, DLP achieves quicker print times for most parts. The reason it’s faster is because it exposes entire layers at once. With SLA printing, a laser has to draw out each of these layers, and this takes time.

Another plus point for DLP printing technology is that it is robust and produces high resolution models every time. It’s also economical with the ability to use cheaper materials for even complex and detailed objects. This is something that not only reduces waste, but also keeps printing costs low.

3) Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Technology

                                                                                    FDM is a 3D printing process developed by Scott Crump , and then implemented by Stratasys Ltd., in the 1980s. It uses production grade thermal plastic materials to print its 3D objects. It’s popular for producing functional prototypes, concept models, and manufacturing aids. It’s a technology that can create accurate details and boasts an exceptional strength to weight ratio.

Before the FDM printing process begins, the user has to slice the 3D CAD data (the 3D model) into multiple layers using special software. The sliced CAD data goes to the printer which then builds the object layer at a time on the build platform. It does this simply by heating and then extruding the thermoplastic filament through the nozzle and onto the base. The printer can also extrude various support materials as well as the thermoplastic. For example, as a way to support upper layers, the printer can add special support material underneath, which then dissolves after the printing process. As with all 3D printers, the time it takes to print all depends on the objects size and its complexity.

Like many other 3D technologies, the finished object needs cleaning. Raw FDM parts can show fairly visible layer-lines on some objects. These will obviously need hand sanding and finishing after printing. This is the only way to get a smooth, end product with an even surface. FDM finished objects are both functional and durable. This makes it a popular process for use in a wide range of industries, including for mechanical engineering and parts manufacturers. BMW uses FDM 3D printing, as does the well-known food company Nestle, to name just a couple.

4) Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Technology

An American businessman, inventor, and teacher named Dr.Decard developed and patented SLS technology in the mid-1980s. It’s a 3D printing technique that uses high power CO2 lasers to fuse particles together. The laser sinters powdered metal materials (though it can utilize other materials too, like white nylon powder, ceramics and even glass). Here’s how it works:

The build platform, or bed, lowers incrementally with each successive laser scan. It’s a process that repeats one layer at a time until it reaches the object’s height. There is un-sintered support from other powders during the build process that surround and protect the model. This means the 3D objects don’t need other support structures during the build. Someone will remove the un-sintered powders manually after printing. SLS produces durable, high precision parts, and it can use a wide range of materials. It’s a perfect technology for fully-functional, end-use parts and prototypes. SLS is quite similar to SLA technology with regards to speed and quality. The main difference is with the materials, as SLS uses powdered substances, whereas SLA uses liquid

 resins. It’s this wide variety of available materials that makes SLA technology so popular for printing customized objects.

5) Selective Laser Melting (SLM) Technology

A common use for SLM printing is with 3D parts that have complex structures, geometries and thin walls. The aerospace industry uses SLM 3D printing in some of its pioneering projects. These are typically those which focus on precise, durable, lightweight parts. It’s a costly technology, though, and so not practical or popular with home users for that reason. SLM is quite widespread now among the aerospace and medical orthopedics industries. Those who invest in SLM 3D printers include researchers, universities, and metal powder developers. There are others too, who are keen to explore the full range and future potential of metal additive manufacturing in particular.

6) Electron Beam Melting (EBM) Technology

A Swedish company called Arcam AB founded EBM in 1997. This is a 3D printing technology similar to SLM (see above), in that it uses a powder bed fusion technique. The difference between the two is the power source. The SLM approach above uses high-powered laser in a chamber of noble, or inert gas. EBM, on the other hand, uses a powerful electron beam in a vacuum. Aside from the power source, the remaining processes between the two are quite similar. EBM’s main use is to 3D print metal parts. Its main characteristics are its ability to achieve complex geometries with freedom of design. EBM also produces parts that are incredibly strong and dense in their makeup.

Summing Up

3D printers and print technology is advancing all the time. As it does, prices will continue to fall as the devices and processes become ever more impressive. If you’ve read this guide from top to bottom, you will now have a good basic understanding of the different 3D printers and how they work. You will also know of the various materials printers use and the industries they support. And if you need a refresher, you can simply revisit any section of this guide at any time.